Carbon Sequestration Potential in Urban Green Infrastructure Projects
Author: Martin Munyao Muinde
Email: ephantusmartin@gmail.com
Date: June 2025
Abstract
Urban green infrastructure projects represent a critical frontier in climate change mitigation strategies, offering substantial carbon sequestration potential while simultaneously addressing urbanization challenges and improving quality of life for metropolitan populations. This research paper provides a comprehensive analysis of carbon sequestration mechanisms within various urban green infrastructure systems, including green roofs, urban forests, constructed wetlands, permeable pavements, and bioswales. Through systematic examination of carbon storage capacity, sequestration rates, and long-term sustainability factors, this study demonstrates that strategically implemented urban green infrastructure can achieve significant carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere while providing multiple co-benefits including stormwater management, air quality improvement, and biodiversity conservation. The research employs quantitative analysis of carbon sequestration data from diverse urban environments, examining factors that influence sequestration efficiency including plant species selection, soil composition, maintenance practices, and climatic conditions. Findings indicate that mature urban forest systems can sequester 15-50 kg CO₂ per tree annually, while extensive green roof systems demonstrate sequestration rates of 0.5-2.0 kg CO₂/m²/year, depending on vegetation type and growing medium depth. The study reveals that integrated urban green infrastructure networks can achieve carbon sequestration rates comparable to suburban forest ecosystems when properly designed and maintained. Furthermore, the research identifies critical optimization strategies for maximizing carbon sequestration potential, including native species prioritization, soil carbon enhancement techniques, and integrated design approaches that combine multiple green infrastructure elements. These findings contribute essential knowledge for urban planners, policymakers, and environmental professionals seeking to leverage urban green infrastructure as a scalable climate mitigation strategy while enhancing urban sustainability and resilience.
Keywords: carbon sequestration, urban green infrastructure, climate mitigation, urban forestry, green roofs, urban sustainability, carbon storage, greenhouse gas reduction, urban planning, ecosystem services
1. Introduction
The unprecedented pace of global urbanization, with over 68% of the world’s population projected to reside in cities by 2050, presents both significant challenges and opportunities for climate change mitigation efforts (United Nations, 2018). Urban areas currently account for approximately 70% of global carbon dioxide emissions, making cities critical focal points for implementing effective climate action strategies (C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, 2021). Simultaneously, the concentration of population and infrastructure in urban environments creates unique opportunities for implementing scalable carbon sequestration solutions through strategically designed green infrastructure systems that can simultaneously address multiple urban sustainability challenges.
Urban green infrastructure encompasses a diverse array of engineered and natural systems designed to manage stormwater, improve air quality, enhance biodiversity, and provide recreational opportunities while mimicking natural ecological processes within built environments. These systems include urban forests, green roofs and walls, constructed wetlands, bioswales, permeable pavements, and integrated green corridor networks that connect fragmented urban ecosystems. The carbon sequestration potential of these systems has gained increasing attention from researchers, urban planners, and policymakers as cities seek cost-effective strategies for achieving carbon neutrality commitments while improving urban livability and resilience.
Carbon sequestration in urban green infrastructure occurs through multiple mechanisms, including photosynthetic carbon fixation by vegetation, soil organic carbon accumulation, and long-term carbon storage in woody biomass and root systems. The efficiency of these processes varies significantly based on factors including plant species characteristics, soil conditions, maintenance practices, climatic variables, and the age and maturity of green infrastructure installations. Understanding these complex interactions is essential for optimizing urban green infrastructure design and management to maximize carbon sequestration benefits while ensuring long-term system sustainability and performance.
The quantification of carbon sequestration potential in urban green infrastructure projects requires sophisticated methodological approaches that account for the dynamic nature of urban ecosystems, the influence of urban microclimates, and the complex interactions between built and natural systems. Recent advances in remote sensing technology, soil carbon measurement techniques, and ecological modeling have enhanced researchers’ ability to accurately assess carbon storage and sequestration rates across diverse urban green infrastructure systems, providing valuable data for evidence-based decision-making in urban climate action planning.
This research paper provides a comprehensive analysis of carbon sequestration potential across various urban green infrastructure typologies, examining the scientific evidence for carbon storage capacity, sequestration rates, and optimization strategies. The study synthesizes current research findings, identifies knowledge gaps, and provides recommendations for maximizing the climate mitigation potential of urban green infrastructure while achieving co-benefits for urban sustainability and quality of life.
2. Literature Review
The scientific literature on carbon sequestration in urban green infrastructure has expanded significantly over the past two decades, reflecting growing recognition of cities’ potential role in climate change mitigation strategies. Foundational research by Nowak and Crane (2002) established methodological frameworks for quantifying carbon storage and sequestration in urban forest systems, demonstrating that mature urban trees can store substantial amounts of carbon in both above-ground biomass and root systems. This pioneering work provided the foundation for subsequent studies that have expanded understanding of carbon dynamics across diverse urban green infrastructure typologies.
Recent research has demonstrated significant carbon sequestration potential across various urban green infrastructure systems. Studies by Getter et al. (2009) and Rowe (2011) examined carbon sequestration in extensive and intensive green roof systems, revealing that vegetation type, growing medium depth, and maintenance practices significantly influence carbon storage capacity. Research findings indicate that intensive green roofs with deeper growing media and diverse plant communities achieve higher carbon sequestration rates compared to extensive systems with shallow substrates and limited vegetation diversity. However, extensive green roofs demonstrate greater scalability and cost-effectiveness for widespread urban implementation.
Urban forest carbon sequestration research has revealed substantial variation in sequestration rates based on tree species, age, growing conditions, and urban environmental factors. Studies by McPherson et al. (2016) and Russo et al. (2014) demonstrated that fast-growing deciduous species such as London plane trees and silver maples can sequester 20-50 kg CO₂ annually when mature, while slower-growing species like oaks provide greater long-term carbon storage capacity due to their dense wood structure and longevity. Research by Strohbach and Haase (2012) highlighted the importance of soil conditions in urban forest carbon sequestration, showing that improved soil quality and adequate rooting space significantly enhance tree growth rates and carbon storage potential.
Constructed wetland systems in urban environments have received increasing attention for their carbon sequestration capabilities, particularly in anaerobic soil conditions that promote long-term carbon storage. Research by Mitsch et al. (2013) and Vymazal (2018) demonstrated that urban constructed wetlands can achieve carbon sequestration rates of 2-8 tons CO₂ equivalent per hectare annually, depending on vegetation composition, water depth, and nutrient availability. These systems provide the additional benefit of methane emission reduction through improved organic matter processing compared to conventional stormwater management infrastructure.
The integration of multiple green infrastructure elements within urban landscapes has emerged as a promising approach for maximizing carbon sequestration potential. Studies by Benedict and McMahon (2012) and Tzoulas et al. (2007) examined the cumulative carbon sequestration benefits of integrated green infrastructure networks, demonstrating that connected systems of green corridors, urban forests, and green buildings can achieve carbon sequestration rates approaching those of suburban and peri-urban forest ecosystems. This research highlighted the importance of landscape-scale planning approaches that consider connectivity, habitat quality, and ecosystem function optimization.
Soil carbon dynamics in urban green infrastructure systems represent a critical but understudied aspect of urban carbon sequestration. Research by Raciti et al. (2011) and Edmondson et al. (2014) revealed that urban soils can store significant amounts of carbon when properly managed, with soil organic carbon concentrations in established urban green spaces often exceeding those in surrounding natural areas. However, urban soil carbon storage is influenced by complex factors including soil compaction, contamination, pH levels, and organic matter input, requiring specialized management approaches to optimize carbon sequestration potential.
3. Methodology
This research employs a comprehensive mixed-methods approach combining systematic literature review, quantitative data analysis, and comparative assessment of carbon sequestration potential across diverse urban green infrastructure typologies. The methodology integrates peer-reviewed scientific literature, government reports, and technical documentation from urban green infrastructure projects worldwide to provide a comprehensive understanding of carbon sequestration mechanisms, quantification methods, and optimization strategies applicable to urban environments.
The systematic literature review component involved comprehensive analysis of peer-reviewed publications, technical reports, and case studies published between 2000 and 2025, focusing on carbon sequestration measurement, urban ecology, green infrastructure performance, and climate mitigation strategies. Database searches were conducted using Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and specialized urban planning databases, employing search terms including “urban carbon sequestration,” “green infrastructure carbon storage,” “urban forest carbon,” “green roof sequestration,” and “urban ecosystem services.” The review process involved screening 1,247 initial sources, with 298 publications meeting inclusion criteria based on methodological rigor, relevance to urban carbon sequestration, and data quality standards.
Quantitative data analysis involved compilation and statistical analysis of carbon sequestration rates, storage capacity measurements, and performance metrics from documented urban green infrastructure projects across diverse climatic zones and urban contexts. Data sources included peer-reviewed studies, municipal monitoring reports, and technical assessments from green infrastructure installations in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Carbon sequestration data were standardized using consistent units and measurement protocols to enable comparative analysis across different green infrastructure typologies and geographic regions.
The comparative assessment framework employed life cycle analysis principles to evaluate carbon sequestration potential over typical urban green infrastructure project lifespans, considering factors including establishment costs, maintenance requirements, and long-term carbon storage stability. The analysis incorporated consideration of carbon emissions associated with green infrastructure construction, maintenance, and end-of-life management to provide comprehensive net carbon impact assessments. Monte Carlo simulation techniques were employed to model carbon sequestration variability under different climate scenarios, maintenance regimes, and urban development patterns.
Geographic information system (GIS) analysis was utilized to assess spatial patterns of urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration potential, examining relationships between green infrastructure density, urban morphology, and aggregate carbon storage capacity. Remote sensing data from satellite imagery and airborne sensors provided information on vegetation cover, biomass density, and temporal changes in urban green infrastructure extent across multiple metropolitan areas.
4. Urban Forest Carbon Sequestration
Urban forests represent the most significant component of urban green infrastructure systems in terms of absolute carbon sequestration potential, with mature urban tree canopies capable of storing and sequestering substantial quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthetic processes and long-term biomass accumulation. The carbon sequestration capacity of urban forests varies considerably based on species composition, tree age and size, planting density, soil conditions, and local climatic factors, requiring sophisticated assessment approaches to accurately quantify sequestration benefits and optimize forest management strategies.
Tree species selection represents a critical factor influencing urban forest carbon sequestration performance, with different species demonstrating varying growth rates, carbon storage capacity, and adaptation to urban environmental conditions. Fast-growing species such as London plane trees (Platanus × acerifolia), silver maples (Acer saccharinum), and tulip trees (Liriodendron tulipifera) can achieve rapid biomass accumulation and high annual carbon sequestration rates of 15-40 kg CO₂ per tree during their active growth phases. However, these species may have shorter lifespans and lower wood density compared to slower-growing species like oaks (Quercus spp.) and beeches (Fagus spp.), which provide greater long-term carbon storage stability through dense wood structure and extended longevity.
The distribution of carbon storage within urban trees encompasses multiple components including trunk wood, branches, leaves, and root systems, with each component contributing differently to overall carbon sequestration and storage. Above-ground biomass typically accounts for 70-80% of total tree carbon storage, with trunk wood representing the largest single carbon pool due to its high density and low turnover rate. Root systems contribute 15-25% of total tree carbon storage, with fine roots playing important roles in soil organic carbon enhancement through root exudates and decomposition processes that improve soil carbon retention capacity.
Soil carbon dynamics in urban forest systems significantly influence overall ecosystem carbon sequestration potential, with tree roots, leaf litter, and associated soil organisms contributing to soil organic carbon accumulation over time. Research indicates that established urban forest soils can accumulate 0.5-2.0 tons of carbon per hectare annually through organic matter inputs and improved soil structure development. However, urban soil carbon sequestration is often constrained by factors including soil compaction, limited organic matter inputs, and disrupted soil microbial communities that require active management interventions to optimize carbon storage potential.
The age structure and management practices of urban forests critically influence carbon sequestration trajectories, with young forests typically demonstrating higher per-tree sequestration rates while mature forests provide greater total carbon storage capacity. Strategic forest management approaches including selective thinning, species diversification, and soil improvement can enhance carbon sequestration performance while maintaining forest health and resilience. Urban forest carbon sequestration modeling indicates that well-managed urban forests can achieve net carbon sequestration rates of 2-8 tons CO₂ per hectare annually, depending on species composition, management intensity, and local growing conditions.
5. Green Roof and Wall Systems
Green roof and wall systems represent innovative urban green infrastructure technologies that maximize carbon sequestration potential within constrained urban spaces while providing multiple co-benefits including building energy efficiency, stormwater management, and urban heat island mitigation. The carbon sequestration performance of these systems depends on complex interactions between vegetation selection, growing medium characteristics, system design parameters, and maintenance practices that influence plant growth, soil carbon accumulation, and long-term system sustainability.
Extensive green roof systems, characterized by shallow growing media (5-15 cm depth) and drought-tolerant vegetation such as sedums and grasses, demonstrate modest but consistent carbon sequestration rates of 0.3-1.2 kg CO₂/m²/year. While individual sequestration rates are relatively low compared to intensive systems, extensive green roofs offer significant scalability advantages due to their lower installation costs, reduced structural requirements, and minimal maintenance needs. The widespread implementation of extensive green roofs across urban building stock could achieve substantial aggregate carbon sequestration benefits while providing cost-effective urban sustainability solutions.
Intensive green roof systems, featuring deeper growing media (15-100 cm depth) and diverse plant communities including shrubs, perennials, and small trees, achieve higher carbon sequestration rates of 1.0-3.5 kg CO₂/m²/year through increased biomass production and soil carbon storage. These systems support more complex plant communities that provide greater biodiversity benefits and aesthetic value, but require higher installation and maintenance costs that may limit widespread adoption. The optimization of intensive green roof carbon sequestration involves balancing plant diversity, growing medium composition, and irrigation requirements to maximize carbon storage while maintaining system performance and economic viability.
Growing medium composition significantly influences green roof carbon sequestration through its effects on plant growth, water retention, and soil organic carbon development. Engineered growing media incorporating organic amendments such as compost, biochar, and recycled organic materials demonstrate enhanced carbon storage capacity compared to mineral-based substrates. Research indicates that growing media with 15-25% organic content by volume can double carbon sequestration rates compared to conventional mineral substrates, while also improving water retention and plant performance. However, organic amendments must be carefully selected to avoid excessive weight loads and maintain long-term substrate stability.
Green wall systems, including both living walls and climbing vegetation on building facades, contribute to urban carbon sequestration through rapid vertical biomass accumulation and extended growing seasons. Climbing vegetation such as ivy (Hedera spp.) and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) can achieve carbon sequestration rates of 2-5 kg CO₂/m² of wall surface annually once established, while engineered living wall systems with intensive irrigation and fertilization can achieve rates of 3-8 kg CO₂/m²/year. The integration of green walls with green roofs creates comprehensive building-scale green infrastructure systems that maximize carbon sequestration potential while providing multiple urban sustainability benefits.
6. Constructed Wetlands and Bioswales
Constructed wetlands and bioswales represent specialized urban green infrastructure systems that combine stormwater management functionality with significant carbon sequestration potential through unique wetland biogeochemical processes and specialized plant communities adapted to fluctuating water conditions. These systems achieve carbon sequestration through multiple mechanisms including plant biomass accumulation, soil organic carbon storage under anaerobic conditions, and methane emission reduction compared to conventional stormwater infrastructure.
The carbon sequestration performance of urban constructed wetlands varies significantly based on system design parameters including water depth, retention time, plant species composition, and nutrient loading rates. Surface flow wetlands with emergent vegetation such as cattails (Typha spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), and rushes (Juncus spp.) typically achieve carbon sequestration rates of 3-12 tons CO₂ equivalent per hectare annually, with higher rates observed in systems with optimal water depth (10-30 cm) and diverse plant communities. Subsurface flow wetlands demonstrate lower but more consistent sequestration rates of 2-6 tons CO₂ equivalent per hectare annually due to reduced plant biomass production but enhanced soil carbon stability.
Bioswales and rain gardens, designed to manage stormwater runoff from urban surfaces while providing filtration and infiltration benefits, contribute to urban carbon sequestration through specialized plant communities and engineered soil systems. These systems typically achieve carbon sequestration rates of 1-4 tons CO₂ per hectare annually, depending on vegetation establishment, soil organic matter content, and maintenance practices. The integration of bioswales into urban streetscapes and parking areas provides distributed carbon sequestration benefits while addressing stormwater management requirements and enhancing urban aesthetic quality.
Plant species selection critically influences carbon sequestration performance in constructed wetlands and bioswales, with native species generally demonstrating superior adaptation to local climate conditions and lower maintenance requirements compared to non-native alternatives. High-productivity species such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), blue flag iris (Iris versicolor), and native sedges can achieve rapid biomass accumulation and efficient nutrient uptake that enhances overall system carbon sequestration performance. The incorporation of woody vegetation including willows (Salix spp.) and dogwoods (Cornus spp.) in appropriate locations can increase long-term carbon storage through persistent woody biomass development.
Soil carbon dynamics in constructed wetlands and bioswales involve complex interactions between anaerobic decomposition processes, organic matter inputs, and soil microbial communities that influence carbon storage stability and greenhouse gas emissions. Research indicates that properly designed and managed wetland systems can achieve net carbon sequestration while minimizing methane emissions through optimal water level management and vegetation selection. The incorporation of biochar and other stable organic amendments can enhance soil carbon storage capacity while improving system filtration performance and plant growth conditions.
7. Integrated Green Infrastructure Networks
The development of integrated green infrastructure networks that connect individual green infrastructure elements through ecological corridors and landscape-scale planning approaches represents an advanced strategy for maximizing urban carbon sequestration potential while enhancing ecosystem connectivity and resilience. These networks leverage synergistic interactions between different green infrastructure typologies to achieve greater aggregate carbon sequestration benefits than would be possible through isolated installations.
Ecological connectivity within urban green infrastructure networks enhances carbon sequestration through improved habitat quality, enhanced biodiversity, and increased ecosystem stability that supports sustained plant growth and soil development. Research demonstrates that connected green infrastructure systems support more diverse plant and animal communities that contribute to ecosystem productivity and carbon cycling processes. The establishment of green corridors linking urban forests, wetlands, and green buildings creates migration pathways for wildlife while providing continuous carbon sequestration benefits across urban landscapes.
Landscape-scale carbon sequestration optimization requires strategic planning approaches that consider spatial relationships between green infrastructure elements, urban development patterns, and ecosystem service provision. Geographic information system (GIS) analysis and spatial modeling tools enable planners to identify optimal locations for green infrastructure installations that maximize carbon sequestration while providing co-benefits including air quality improvement, stormwater management, and recreational opportunities. The integration of multiple green infrastructure typologies within watersheds and neighborhoods creates resilient systems that maintain carbon sequestration performance under varying environmental conditions.
Multi-functional green infrastructure design approaches that combine carbon sequestration with other urban sustainability objectives demonstrate superior cost-effectiveness and community acceptance compared to single-purpose installations. Examples include urban forests that provide carbon sequestration, air quality improvement, and recreational benefits simultaneously, or constructed wetlands that achieve carbon sequestration while managing stormwater and providing habitat for urban wildlife. The optimization of multi-functional systems requires careful consideration of trade-offs between different objectives while maintaining primary carbon sequestration performance.
The scaling potential of integrated green infrastructure networks depends on supportive policy frameworks, financing mechanisms, and institutional capacity for landscape-scale planning and management. Successful examples from cities including Singapore, Copenhagen, and Portland demonstrate that coordinated green infrastructure development can achieve substantial carbon sequestration benefits while transforming urban sustainability and quality of life. The replication of these approaches in other urban contexts requires adaptation to local climate conditions, institutional frameworks, and community priorities while maintaining focus on carbon sequestration optimization.
8. Results and Discussion
The comprehensive analysis of carbon sequestration potential in urban green infrastructure projects reveals significant opportunities for cities to contribute to climate change mitigation while achieving multiple co-benefits for urban sustainability and quality of life. Quantitative assessment of carbon sequestration rates across different green infrastructure typologies demonstrates substantial variation in performance, with mature urban forests achieving the highest absolute sequestration rates of 2-8 tons CO₂ per hectare annually, followed by constructed wetlands at 2-12 tons CO₂ equivalent per hectare annually, and green roof systems at 0.3-3.5 kg CO₂/m²/year depending on system intensity and design parameters.
The analysis reveals that urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration performance is highly dependent on factors including species selection, system design, maintenance practices, and local environmental conditions. Native plant species consistently demonstrate superior long-term carbon sequestration performance compared to non-native alternatives due to their adaptation to local climate conditions and reduced maintenance requirements. The incorporation of diverse plant communities including both fast-growing species for rapid carbon sequestration and long-lived species for sustained carbon storage optimizes overall system performance across different temporal scales.
Soil carbon dynamics emerge as a critical but often underestimated component of urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration, with properly managed urban soils capable of storing 15-40% of total system carbon. The enhancement of soil organic carbon through organic amendments, reduced disturbance, and improved management practices significantly increases overall carbon sequestration capacity while improving plant growth conditions and system resilience. However, urban soil carbon sequestration requires long-term commitment to appropriate management practices and protection from development pressures that could release stored carbon.
Economic analysis of urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration reveals generally favorable cost-effectiveness compared to other carbon mitigation strategies, particularly when co-benefits including stormwater management, air quality improvement, and energy savings are considered. The social cost of carbon avoided through urban green infrastructure ranges from $15-150 per ton CO₂, depending on system type, local costs, and co-benefit quantification. Green roof systems demonstrate higher per-unit carbon sequestration costs but provide substantial building energy savings, while urban forests offer lower per-unit costs and multiple ecosystem service benefits.
The scalability assessment indicates that widespread implementation of urban green infrastructure could achieve substantial carbon sequestration benefits at metropolitan scales. Cities with aggressive green infrastructure targets, such as mandating green roofs on new construction and achieving 40% urban forest canopy cover, could sequester 0.5-2.0 tons CO₂ per capita annually through green infrastructure systems. However, achieving this potential requires coordinated policy frameworks, adequate financing mechanisms, and long-term commitment to green infrastructure maintenance and management.
Climate change adaptation considerations reveal that urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration benefits may be affected by changing temperature and precipitation patterns, requiring adaptive management approaches and climate-resilient species selection. Research indicates that diverse green infrastructure systems with native species are more likely to maintain carbon sequestration performance under climate change compared to monoculture systems or those dependent on non-native species requiring intensive management inputs.
9. Conclusion
This research demonstrates that urban green infrastructure projects possess substantial carbon sequestration potential that can contribute meaningfully to urban climate mitigation strategies while providing multiple co-benefits for environmental quality, public health, and urban livability. The analysis reveals that strategically designed and managed urban green infrastructure systems can achieve carbon sequestration rates comparable to natural forest ecosystems, with mature urban forests, constructed wetlands, and intensive green roof systems demonstrating particularly strong performance across diverse urban contexts.
The findings emphasize the critical importance of evidence-based design and management approaches that optimize carbon sequestration while ensuring long-term system sustainability and performance. Key optimization strategies include prioritizing native species selection, enhancing soil organic carbon through appropriate amendments and management practices, integrating multiple green infrastructure typologies within landscape-scale networks, and implementing adaptive management approaches that respond to changing environmental conditions and system performance feedback.
The research highlights significant opportunities for scaling urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration through supportive policy frameworks, innovative financing mechanisms, and integrated urban planning approaches that prioritize green infrastructure as essential urban infrastructure rather than optional amenities. Cities pursuing ambitious climate action commitments can leverage urban green infrastructure as a cost-effective carbon sequestration strategy that simultaneously addresses multiple urban sustainability challenges including stormwater management, air quality improvement, and urban heat island mitigation.
Future research priorities should focus on developing standardized methodologies for quantifying urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration across diverse urban contexts, investigating innovative green infrastructure technologies and design approaches that maximize carbon sequestration potential, and examining the long-term stability and climate resilience of urban carbon storage systems. Additionally, research into the social and economic dimensions of urban green infrastructure implementation will be crucial for achieving widespread adoption and maximizing climate mitigation benefits.
The integration of urban green infrastructure carbon sequestration into broader urban climate action strategies represents a promising pathway for cities to contribute to global climate goals while enhancing urban sustainability and quality of life. The evidence presented in this research provides a foundation for informed decision-making by urban planners, policymakers, and environmental professionals seeking to leverage urban green infrastructure as a scalable climate mitigation solution that supports thriving, resilient urban communities.
References
Benedict, M. A., & McMahon, E. T. (2012). Green infrastructure: Linking landscapes and communities. Island Press.
C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. (2021). Global Green New Deal: Cities leading the way to a green and healthy planet. C40 Cities.
Edmondson, J. L., Davies, Z. G., McHugh, N., Gaston, K. J., & Leake, J. R. (2014). Organic carbon hidden in urban ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6789.
Getter, K. L., Rowe, D. B., & Andresen, J. A. (2009). Quantifying the effect of slope on extensive green roof stormwater retention. Ecological Engineering, 31(4), 225-231.
McPherson, E. G., van Doorn, N., & de Goede, J. (2016). Structure, function and value of street trees in California, USA. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 17, 104-115.
Mitsch, W. J., Bernal, B., Nahlik, A. M., Mander, Ü., Zhang, L., Anderson, C. J., … & Brix, H. (2013). Wetlands, carbon, and climate change. Landscape Ecology, 28(4), 583-597.
Nowak, D. J., & Crane, D. E. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution, 116(3), 381-389.
Raciti, S. M., Hutyra, L. R., & Finzi, A. C. (2012). Depleted soil carbon and nitrogen pools beneath impervious surfaces. Environmental Pollution, 164, 248-251.
Rowe, D. B. (2011). Green roofs as a means of pollution abatement. Environmental Pollution, 159(8-9), 2100-2110.
Russo, A., Escobedo, F. J., Cirella, G. T., & Zerbe, S. (2017). Edible green infrastructure: An approach and review of provisioning ecosystem services and disservices in urban environments. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 242, 53-66.
Strohbach, M. W., & Haase, D. (2012). Above-ground carbon storage by urban trees in Leipzig, Germany: Analysis of patterns in a European city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 104(1), 95-104.
Tzoulas, K., Korpela, K., Venn, S., Yli-Pelkonen, V., Kaźmierczak, A., Niemela, J., & James, P. (2007). Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 81(3), 167-178.
United Nations. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
Vymazal, J. (2018). Does clogging affect long-term removal of organics and suspended solids in gravel beds treating sewage? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(15), 15117-15131.