What Influence Did Paradise Lost Have on Frankenstein?

Author: Martin Munyao Muinde
Email: ephantusmartin@gmail.com

Introduction

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) stands as one of the most innovative works of Romantic and Gothic literature, not only for its groundbreaking fusion of science and horror but also for its deep engagement with earlier literary traditions. One of the most significant influences on Shelley’s novel is John Milton’s epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), a monumental work that examines the fall of humankind, the rebellion of Satan, and the complexities of divine justice. The intertextual relationship between Paradise Lost and Frankenstein is neither superficial nor incidental. Shelley deliberately embeds Milton’s themes, imagery, and philosophical questions into her narrative, using the epic as a lens through which to explore questions of creation, rebellion, alienation, and morality. Understanding the influence of Paradise Lost on Frankenstein reveals not only the richness of Shelley’s novel but also its place within a broader dialogue on human ambition, divine authority, and the dangers of overreaching knowledge. This essay examines the multifaceted ways in which Paradise Lost shaped Frankenstein, focusing on thematic parallels, the creature’s psychological development, the moral positioning of Victor as a modern creator, and the novel’s engagement with questions of free will, justice, and identity.

The Central Role of Creation and Rebellion

One of the most profound ways Paradise Lost influenced Frankenstein is through the theme of creation and rebellion. Milton’s epic presents the act of divine creation, with Adam and Eve fashioned in God’s image and endowed with free will. In contrast, Satan rebels against God’s authority, seeking autonomy and power, which ultimately leads to his fall. Shelley reimagines this theological framework within a secular and scientific context. Victor Frankenstein assumes the role of God by attempting to bestow life upon lifeless matter. However, unlike Milton’s benevolent creator, Victor immediately rejects his creation, instigating a cycle of alienation and rebellion. The creature, much like Milton’s Satan, becomes conscious of his exclusion and begins to resist his creator’s authority (Shelley, 1818/2003, p. 87).

The rebellion in Frankenstein echoes the central conflict of Paradise Lost, where the desire for autonomy and recognition drives the fallen angel to defy divine law. Similarly, the creature resists the social and emotional deprivation imposed upon him by Victor and humanity. This intertextual borrowing underscores Shelley’s critique of unchecked ambition and flawed authority. Victor, in aspiring to divine power, fails to embody the compassion and responsibility associated with creation. Instead, he mirrors Milton’s God in his authority but resembles Satan in his arrogance and disregard for consequences. By drawing from Paradise Lost, Shelley positions her narrative as a modern myth, examining the repercussions of rebellion not against divine will, but against natural and moral laws.

The Creature’s Identification with Adam and Satan

A striking dimension of Paradise Lost’s influence on Frankenstein emerges through the creature’s direct engagement with Milton’s text. In the novel, the creature recounts how he discovered and read Paradise Lost during his period of self-education. The epic profoundly shapes his understanding of his own existence, as he identifies both with Adam, who is created and abandoned, and with Satan, who rebels against his maker. He laments, “I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel” (Shelley, 1818/2003, p. 87). This dual identification reveals the complexity of his psychological state, oscillating between a desire for acceptance and a recognition of his damnation.

This engagement with Paradise Lost also demonstrates Shelley’s use of intertextuality as a means of constructing the creature’s consciousness. By reading Milton, the creature gains a literary framework for articulating his alienation and injustice. Adam, unlike him, receives companionship in Eve, while Satan, though cast out, possesses a sense of purpose and power. The creature, however, experiences the worst of both worlds: he is isolated like Adam before Eve and cursed like Satan without the glory of defiance. Shelley, therefore, uses Milton’s text not only as a thematic influence but as a tool for dramatizing the creature’s tragic self-awareness and philosophical despair (Bloom, 1996).

Victor Frankenstein as the Modern Prometheus and Miltonic God

Shelley’s portrayal of Victor Frankenstein is also shaped by Paradise Lost. While the novel’s subtitle explicitly identifies Victor with Prometheus, his role also parallels Milton’s depiction of God. In Paradise Lost, God is both a benevolent creator and an uncompromising authority who punishes rebellion. Victor embodies the creator figure, but unlike God, he fails to nurture his creation. His immediate horror and abandonment of the creature demonstrate a flawed imitation of divine authority. In this sense, Victor becomes a distorted Miltonic God, whose neglect and lack of compassion engender chaos rather than order.

At the same time, Victor reflects Milton’s Satan in his excessive pride and ambition. Satan declares in Paradise Lost, “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven” (Milton, 1667/2008, Book I, line 263), reflecting his insatiable desire for power. Victor mirrors this ambition by seeking to transcend the limits of human mortality through scientific discovery. However, his ambition leads not to triumph but to ruin, echoing the destructive consequences of Satan’s hubris. Shelley’s use of Milton’s theological characters allows her to highlight the paradoxical nature of human ambition: the creator becomes as flawed as the rebel, and the pursuit of greatness leads to destruction. In this way, Paradise Lost serves as a framework for critiquing Victor’s character and situating his downfall within a broader mythological and philosophical tradition.

Alienation, Isolation, and the Miltonic Fall

Another critical area of influence lies in the theme of alienation, which both Paradise Lost and Frankenstein explore with great intensity. In Milton’s poem, Satan and his followers experience alienation after their expulsion from Heaven, and Adam and Eve endure alienation after their banishment from Eden. This sense of exile resonates throughout Shelley’s narrative, where both Victor and the creature are condemned to isolation. Victor’s pursuit of knowledge isolates him from family and society, while the creature’s physical deformity ensures his rejection by humanity. Both characters mirror Milton’s fallen figures, trapped in a cycle of separation and despair.

For the creature, alienation becomes the defining feature of his existence. His rejection by Victor and subsequent exclusion from society mirror the plight of Adam after the fall, who is aware of his distance from God. Yet unlike Adam, who retains the possibility of redemption, the creature sees no hope for reconciliation. His alienation is absolute, rendering him more akin to Satan, who is irrevocably cut off from divine grace. By weaving this theme into her novel, Shelley underscores the destructive consequences of abandonment and the psychological torment of exclusion, echoing Milton’s exploration of the human condition in the aftermath of transgression (Botting, 1996).

Free Will, Justice, and the Question of Responsibility

The influence of Paradise Lost on Frankenstein also manifests in the philosophical inquiries both texts pursue regarding free will, justice, and responsibility. Milton’s poem grapples with the paradox of divine justice: if God is omnipotent and benevolent, why permit rebellion and suffering? Shelley transposes this dilemma into the human realm by asking whether Victor is responsible for the actions of his creation. Victor views the creature’s murders as evidence of innate evil, yet his neglect and rejection clearly shape the creature’s descent into violence. This echoes the theological debates in Paradise Lost, where questions of culpability and divine justice remain central.

The creature, like Milton’s Adam, initially embodies innocence but gradually confronts the burden of choice. His decision to seek revenge against Victor mirrors the fall into sin, yet Shelley complicates the moral framework by underscoring Victor’s failure as a creator. Just as Milton’s God holds Adam accountable despite Satan’s temptation, Victor holds the creature accountable despite his own negligence. Shelley’s engagement with Milton here highlights the complexity of moral responsibility, challenging simplistic notions of good and evil. Instead, she presents a tragic interplay of free will and circumstance, suggesting that both creator and creation share responsibility for the ensuing destruction (Curran, 1990).

Intertextuality and Literary Self-Consciousness

An important yet often overlooked aspect of Paradise Lost’s influence on Frankenstein is the novel’s intertextual self-consciousness. By embedding Milton’s text within her narrative, Shelley not only acknowledges its influence but also invites readers to interpret her novel in dialogue with the epic. The creature’s act of reading Paradise Lost mirrors the reader’s own engagement with texts, emphasizing the role of literature in shaping identity and consciousness. In this sense, Frankenstein becomes a novel about reading as much as about creation, dramatizing how texts mediate our understanding of ourselves and others.

Moreover, Shelley’s engagement with Milton is critical rather than imitative. She questions the adequacy of Milton’s theological framework by exposing its limitations in a modern, secular context. In Frankenstein, creation is no longer divine but human, rebellion is not against God but against flawed humanity, and alienation arises not from sin but from social rejection. Shelley thus transforms Milton’s epic into a modern myth that interrogates the moral and existential dilemmas of her time. This intertextual dialogue ensures that Frankenstein is not merely influenced by Paradise Lost but actively reinterprets and challenges its themes (Hogle, 2002).

Conclusion

The question of what influence Paradise Lost had on Frankenstein underscores the profound intertextual connections between these two monumental works. Milton’s epic provided Shelley with thematic frameworks for exploring creation, rebellion, alienation, and moral responsibility, while also shaping the psychological and philosophical dimensions of her characters. The creature’s identification with both Adam and Satan exemplifies the tragic ambiguity of existence, while Victor’s flawed imitation of God dramatizes the dangers of unchecked ambition. Through her engagement with Milton, Shelley situates her novel within a broader literary and theological tradition while simultaneously reinterpreting it for a modern context. Frankenstein thus emerges not only as a Gothic tale but as a philosophical and intertextual exploration of humanity’s perpetual struggle with creation, power, and responsibility. Recognizing the influence of Paradise Lost deepens our appreciation of Shelley’s achievement, highlighting her ability to transform one of the greatest epics of the seventeenth century into a lens for understanding the anxieties of the nineteenth—and beyond.

References

Bloom, H. (1996). Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Chelsea House.

Botting, F. (1996). Gothic. Routledge.

Curran, S. (1990). The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley. Cambridge University Press.

Hogle, J. E. (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction. Cambridge University Press.

Milton, J. (2008). Paradise Lost (1667). Oxford University Press.

Shelley, M. (2003). Frankenstein (1831 ed.). Oxford University Press.